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Appendices

• Change Bureau of Reclamation operations on the North Platte River system to benefit instream flows - Possible changes in Bureau operations may provide water sources to benefit instream flows.
• Operation of Federal Energy Regulatory Commission projects - Changes in the operation of FERC licensed projects may provide water sources to benefit instream flows.
• Allocation of unappropriated water for instream flows - Seek an allocation of unappropriated water for instream flows from the Nebraska Department of Water Resources.
• Buy out of consumptive water rights and convert to instream flows - Acquisition of existing water rights and transfer of those rights to assure flows during crucial time periods each year.
• Federal water rights - The United States government could acquire an instream flow right in the Platte River.
• Development of new storage to augment flows - Construction of stream side reservoirs designed for releases to augment flows during crucial time periods each year. This would require a storage use right for instream flow purposes.
• No further development of some water resource projects - Relinquishment of State, Federal, or local water development projects planned in the Platte River system in Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming.
• Regulate groundwater withdrawals - The Nebraska State legislature could enact laws to regulate groundwater pumping during crucial time periods each year to prevent depletion of instream flows.
• On-farm water conservation measures and conveyance facilities - Upgrading diversion canals and other irrigation facilities to improve their efficiency of water delivery.
• Buy out and convert existing water projects/rights - Water stored in some upstream water project reservoirs that is not being used for irrigation purposes could be acquired by a Federal or State agency. Acquisition would allow for release of those waters to augment depleted flows in the system.
• Purchase storage rights - Federal or State government agencies could purchase rights to water that would be stored in existing storage facilities. The stored water would be released at crucial time periods to augment instream flows.
• Change Bureau of Reclamation operations on the South Platte River to augment instream flows - Alteration of Bureau operations on the South Platte River system could improve the efficiency of managing water storage and timing water releases in the system in Colorado.
• Buy out and convert existing water rights on the South Platte River - Some water rights existing in the south Platte River system could be purchased and converted to instream flows.
• Water transfers - Cooperative agreements, memoranda of understanding, and other avenues may be used to affect inter-basin water transfers.
• Corps of Engineers flood control operations on the South Platte River - Modification of operation of COE flood control projects to benefit instream flows.
• Improve efficiency of industrial water use - Federal, State, or local incentives could be developed to encourage better management of industrial water use in the Platte River basin.
• Improve efficiency of municipal water use - Federal, State, or local incentives could be developed to encourage better management of municipal water use in the Platte River basin. Communities could be required to install water meters on homes to curtail unregulated water use.
• Conversion of existing water uses - New water projects could obtain their water from previously developed sources.
• Control high flows - Provide a mechanism to prevent flows that would inundate least tern and piping plover nests.

II. In-Channel Vegetation Management

• Mechanical clearing - Several types of machines and hand tools are available to remove encroached woody vegetation from riverine sandbars and from adjacent stream side areas. Clearing can be used to enhance some areas to provide roosting and nesting habitat.
• Scouring flows - High flows of sufficient magnitude and duration could be used to remove some encroached annual and perennial vegetation from riverine areas. Scouring flows rework bottom sediments.
• Chemical control - Properly labeled herbicides could be used in some areas to retard encroached woody vegetation. Widespread use of chemicals could produce detrimental impacts to non-target areas.
• Fire management - Repeated (annual) controlled burns could be used on riverine and stream side areas sandbars to retard encroaching woody and herbaceous vegetation.
• Regulated grazing - Under some circumstances, grazing by ungulates could be used to retard encroaching woody and herbaceous vegetation.
• Sediment supply and transport - Adequate supplies of sediments transported by flows of sufficient volume could remove some annual and perennial vegetation from riverine areas.
• Instream structures - Temporary low-head dams could be constructed to drown in-channel vegetation. Channel blocks and other structures could be constructed to redirect flows to encourage erosion of sandbars and islands.
• Inundation flows - Properly timed flows of sufficient volume and duration could be used to drown seeds or seedlings of encroaching vegetation.
• Remove woody vegetation to reduce seed sources - Cottonwood and other tree species in stream side areas could be cut down to reduce seed sources.
• No vegetation management - The absence of manipulative management would allow succession of woody and herbaceous continue until equilibrium is reached.

III. Wet Meadow Management

• Fire management - Repeated (annual) controlled burns could be used to retard encroaching woody vegetation. Fire at the proper time could also be used to stimulate or retard the production of cool-season or warm-season native grasses and forbs. Fire can reduce the height of the vegetation to improve foraging opportunities for whooping cranes.
• Pumping - Water could be pumped from the aquifer or from the river channel to provide an additional source of water for wet meadows.

IV. On-Site Species Management

• Predator control - Trapping, predator enclosures, and other activities could be used to reduce or eliminate some predators from least tern and piping plover nesting colonies.
• Regulation of human activities - Road construction, housing developments, and disruptive recreational activities should be discouraged near nesting, roosting, and foraging areas.
• Law enforcement - An aggressive law enforcement effort could be put in place to discourage taking of endangered birds.
• Site-specific management - Nesting roosting or foraging habitat could be developed in suitable areas in and adjacent to the river channel.

• Fee title ownership - Ownership by a government agency or conservation organization could be used in some areas to provide permanent protection of habitat.
• Cooperative agreements with private landowners - Short term or long term management agreements could be used to protect nesting or roosting habitat.
• Conservation easements - Perpetual easements could be acquired to remove development threats in some areas.
• Tax incentives for habitat maintenance by private landowners - State or local governments could enact certain tax incentives to encourage conservation of endangered species habitat by private landowners.
• Technical assistance by agencies - The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, or the Natural Resource Districts could provide private landowners with assistance in protecting or managing endangered species habitat.
• Land registry programs - Registry programs could be developed to recognize important endangered species habitat.
• Regulated grazing - Under some circumstances, grazing by ungulates could be used to retard encroaching woody vegetation, Grazing at the proper time could also be used to stimulate or retard the production of cool-season or warm-season native grasses and forbs. Grazing can reduce the height of the vegetation to improve foraging opportunities for whooping cranes.
• In-meadow water control structures - Some structures could be constructed to hold runoff to stimulate the growth of wet meadow vegetation.
• Closing drainage ditches - Closing ditches could be used to restore the water supply to wet meadow vegetation.
• Conversion of agricultural lands to wet meadows - Low lying agricultural land could be acquired and managed to restore wet meadow vegetation.
• Change bank elevation - Channel banks could be lowered to encourage water infiltration to wet meadows.
• Groundwater regulation - Changes in Pumping policies could be sought to discourage excessive removal of shallow groundwater supplies.
• Quantity and timing of flows - Properly timed high quantity flows could be used to provide a proper water regime for wet meadow vegetation.
• Chemical treatment - Properly labeled herbicides could be used in some areas to retard encroaching woody vegetation. Widespread use of chemicals could produce detrimental impacts to non-target areas.
• Water quality improvement - Non-point source pollution could be reduced to improve water quality. Improved land management techniques could be encouraged in adjacent areas to manage runoff.
• Haying - Haying could be used to retard encroaching woody vegetation. Haying at the proper time could also be used to stimulate or retard the production of cool-season or warm season native grasses and forbs. Haying can reduce the height of the vegetation to improve foraging opportunities for whooping cranes.
• In-channel water control structures - Some structures could be constructed to hold sediment and raise the channel bed. Other structures could be used to divert stream flows.
• Agricultural land management - Landowners could be encouraged to implement a crop management program to ensure the continued existence of crops as forage items in some areas.
• Leasing - Short-term or perpetual lease agreements could be developed to encourage the preservation of endangered species habitat.
• Zoning - Zoning ordinances could be enacted or strengthened to encourage the conservation of endangered species habitat on private lands.
• Special designations - Wild and Scenic River and similar designations could be used to discourage development and encourage conservation of endangered species habitat.
• Floodplain management - Special designations could be sought to plan the future development of lands in the floodplain of the Platte River.
• Education - An effective, widespread education program could be implemented to inform the public about endangered species and their habitats in the Platte River valley.

VI. Habitat Impacts

• Regulate industrial development - Future construction of industrial facilities that consume large quantities of water or displace or affect endangered species habitats could be restricted.
• Regulate existing and future surface water development -Water development could be regulated to maintain an appropriate instream flow regime.
• Regulate groundwater development - Regulation of future development could be used to discourage overuse of groundwater resources.
• Bank stabilization/channel stabilization activities - The Corps of Engineers could discourage the placement of stabilization structures that disrupt flows or sediment transport. Existing techniques could be altered to improve their efficiency.
• Road and bridge construction - Regulation of highway construction activities could be expanded to conserve terrestrial habitats and minimize impacts to flow regimes.
• Airport development - Construction of new airport facilities in the floodplain should be discouraged to protect terrestrial habitats, avoid disturbance of roosting, foraging, or nesting birds, and reduce the likelihood of airplane collisions with birds.
• Adequate marking and routing of overhead wires - Future construction of overhead wires should be encouraged to remain within existing occupied corridors. Existing overhead wires that could cause mortality to birds in flight could be marked to increase visibility.
• Regulate residential development - Future residential development in the floodplain could be planned to avoid the destruction of existing terrestrial habitats, and to avoid disturbance to roosting, nesting, and foraging endangered species.
• Sand and gravel development - Sand pit development could be regulated to minimize negative impacts to existing habitats. Sand pits could be intensively managed to maximize nesting or foraging opportunities for least terns and piping plovers.
• Regulate agricultural development - Various programs of the U.S. Department of Agriculture could be used to regulate future agricultural activities to enhance endangered species habitat.
• Pesticides - Buffer zones could be established to minimize exposure of endangered birds to potentially lethal chemicals.
• Hazardous substance control - Toxic chemicals and other hazardous substances should be discouraged from being used or disposed near areas that might be occupied by endangered species.
• Airspace restrictions - The Federal Aviation Administration and Department of Defense could impose stricter airspace restrictions to minimize disturbance of endangered birds, and to reduce the likelihood of collisions with birds in flight.

The Joint Study directed the biology workgroup to develop a program to monitor a recommended management plan for the Platte River in its Big Bend Reach. Later instructions directed the Workgroup to develop only a series of management alternatives without selecting a recommended plan. Lacking a specific management goal makes development of a goal-specific monitoring plan impossible to develop. As an alternative, the Biology Workgroup adapted the following generic monitoring plan from one developed by Carrier et at. (1985).

The goals of a monitoring program for the Platte River ecosystem include:

• Establish the quantity and quality of existing endangered species habitat in the Big Bend of the Platte River.
• Predict trends in the quality and quantity of endangered species habitat.
• Periodically measure the quantity and quality of endangered species habitat and their populations to assess changes over time.
• Provide information to assist efforts to plan effective habitat restoration and preservation.
• Update and refine endangered species models based on new data.

In order to monitor habitat for endangered species, an understanding of the life-history characteristics of the species is required. After these characteristics are known, the environmental data needed to monitor the habitat can be determined. For instance, grasslands of a particular size may be required before a certain species will nest. To assess the status of nesting habitat for this species, environmental data regarding the size and location of grassland tracts would therefore be needed. Analyzing the juxtaposition of habitat components is a difficult task because they are usually distributed unevenly and occur at different frequencies. Consideration must be given to the relative value of each habitat component to the species, as well as the effective area of each component (accounting for disturbances). Such an analysis is even more complex when one considers the number of endangered species using the Platte River and that different species may be competing for some of the same habitat components.

To monitor the complexity of habitat requirements and habitat distribution, two computer-based analysis techniques will be used. A geographical information management system (GIS) is needed which indicates the location of roads, forests, crop types, and other land features which are entered into a computer based on their geographic locations. The second technique involves the use of habitat suitability models to measure the relative value of habitat for each species. Based on these needs, mapped geographical information (including the abundance and distribution of habitat components) can be evaluated to determine the habitat suitability for a particular species. Both distance measures (position of different habitat components in relation to one another) and the amount of habitat available are considered in the evaluation.

The first step in the development of a GIS is to classify all the land surface cover types. Cover type classes are determined primarily by the habitat requirements of the species or their responses to particular habitat components. For example, to assess the value of an area for whooping cranes roosting, positive river channel habitat components such as unobstructed width, water width and water depth need to be included. In this report, a separate model was developed for each endangered species except the bald eagle

Species-specific activities that should be implemented to monitor population and habitat changes among endangered species on the Platte River are listed below.

• Conduct aerial searches of the Platte River to detect the occurrence of whooping cranes during spring and fall each year. Spring surveys should be conducted during 25 March to 20 April. Fall surveys should be conducted during 15 October to 15 November.
• Stream profiles should be made at each riverine roost site to quantity streambed characteristics and other aspects of nocturnal roost sites.
• A public education program should be continued to encourage the reporting of whooping cranes not found by aerial searches.
• Locations of all confirmed sightings should be mapped (to the scale of each 40 acre block) to increase the data base on exact locations used by whooping cranes.
• Intensive habitat analyses should be conducted at each restored habitat site occupied by whooping cranes (primarily wet meadows) to determine microhabitat and microhabitat characteristics of non-riverine foraging habitat.

• Yearly monitoring of least tern populations at each nesting colony to assess nesting population and reproductive success changes.
• Color-mark a minimum of 50 least tern chicks every year to assess survivorship and return rates.
• Obtain nine-inch aerial color infrared photographs of the Platte River every three years.
• Use the photographs obtained above to conduct a 20% sample of the status of riverine channel and sand pit habitats in the Big Bend reach.
• Use the habitat models to assess the status of least tern riverine habitat.

• Yearly monitoring of piping plover populations at each nesting colony to assess nesting population and reproductive success changes.
• Color-mark a minimum of 50 piping plover chicks yearly to assess survivorship and return rates.
• Obtain nine-inch aerial color infrared photographs of the Platte River every three years.
• Use the photographs to conduct a 20% sample of the status of riverine channel and sand pit habitats in the Big Bend reach.
• Use the habitat models to assess the status of piping plover riverine habitat.

• Continue to cooperate with the National Wildlife Federation's annual mid-winter survey to assess changes in bald eagle populations over time.
• Develop improved techniques to more accurately describe the special distribution of bald eagles in the Big Bend reach.
• Monitor the frequency of use of known nocturnal bald eagle roost sites in the Big Bend reach each year.
• Conduct intensive analyses of the habitat components of bald eagle nocturnal roosts at five-year intervals.
• Monitor factors affecting ice formation in the Big Bend Reach and its influence on the availability of bald eagle foraging habitat.