Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center
Afton, A. D. 1979. Time budget of breeding Northern Shovelers. Wilson Bull. 91:
42-49.
Afton, A. D. 1980. Factors affecting incubation rhythms of Northern Shovelers.
Condor 82: 132-137.
Afton, A. D., & C. D. Ankney. 1991. Nutrient-reserve dynamics of breeding Lesser
Scaup: a test of competing hypotheses. Condor 93: 89-97.
Afton, A. D., & R. H. Hier. 1991. Diets of Lesser Scaup breeding in Manitoba.
J. Field Ornithol. 62: 325-334.
Alisauskas, R. T. 1988. Nutrient reserves of Lesser Snow Geese during winter and
spring migration. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, London, University of Western
Ontario.
Alisauskas, R. T., R. T. Eberhardt, & C. D. Ankney. 1990. Nutrient reserves of
breeding Ring-necked Ducks (Aythya collaris). Can. J. Zool. 68: 2524-2530.
Amat, J. A. 1986. Numerical trends, habitat use, and activity of Greylag Geese
wintering in southwestern Spain. Wildfowl 37: 35-45.
Anderson, M. G. 1985. Social behavior of breeding Canvasbacks Aythya valisineria:
male and female strategies of reproduction. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, St.
Paul, University of Minnesota.
Ankney, C. D. 1980. Egg weight, survival, and growth of Lesser Snow Goose goslings.
J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 174-182.
Ankney, C. D. 1984. Nutrient reserve dynamics of breeding and molting Brant.
Auk 101: 361-370.
Ankney, C. D., & C. D. MacInnes. 1978. Nutrient reserves and reproductive per-
formance of female Lesser Snow Geese. Auk 95: 459-471.
Ankney, C. D., & A. D. Afton. 1988. Bioenergetics of breeding Northern Shovelers:
diet, nutrient reserves, clutch size, and incubation. Condor 90: 459-472.
Ashcroft, R. E. 1976. A function of the pairbond in the Common Eider. Wildfowl
27: 101-105.
Austin, J. E., J. R. Serie, & J. H. Noyes. 1990. Diet of Canvasbacks during
breeding. Prairie Nat. 22: 171-176.
Baldassarre, G. A., S. L. Paulus, A. Tamisier, & R. D. Titman. 1987. Workshop
summary: techniques for timing activity of wintering waterfowl. Pp. 181-188
in Waterfowl in winter (M. W. Weller, Ed.). University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis.
Banko, W. E. 1960. The Trumpeter Swan: its history, habits, and population in
the United States. North American Fauna, Bur. Sport Fish. & Wildl., Washing-
ton, D.C., No. 63.
Barry, T. W. 1962. Effect of late seasons on Atlantic Brant reproduction. J.
Wildl. Manage. 26: 19-26.
Bartonek, J. C., & J. J. Hickey. 1969. Food habits of Canvasbacks, Redheads, and
Lesser Scaup in Manitoba. Condor 71: 280-290.
Bartonek, J. C., & H. W. Murdy. 1970. Summer foods of Lesser Scaup in subarctic
taiga. Arctic 23: 35-44.
Barzen, J. A., & J. R. Serie. 1990. Nutrient reserve dynamics of breeding Canvas-
backs. Auk 107: 75-85.
Batt, B. D. J., & H. H. Prince. 1978. Some reproductive parameters of Mallards
in relation to age, captivity and geographic origin. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:
834-842.
Bédard, J., A. Nadeau, & G. Gauthier. 1986. Effects of spring grazing by Greater
Snow Geese on hay production. J. Appl. Ecol. 23: 65-75.
Bengtson, S. A. 1971a. Food and feeding of diving ducks breeding at Lake Myvatn,
Iceland. Ornis Fenn. 48: 77-92.
Bengtson, S. A. 1971b. Variations in clutch-size in ducks in relation to the food
supply. Ibis 113: 523-526.
Bengtson, S. A., & S. Ulfstrand. 1971. Food resources and breeding frequency of
the Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus in Iceland. Oikos 22: 235-239.
Birkhead, M. 1984. Variation in the weight and composition of Mute Swan Cygnus
olor eggs. Condor 86: 489-490.
Birkhead, M. 1985. Variation in egg quality and composition in the Mallard Anas
platyrhynchos. Ibis 127: 467-475.
Black, J. M., C. Deerenberg, & M. Owen. 1991. Foraging behaviour and site selection
of Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis in a traditional and newly colonised
spring staging habitat. Ardea 79: 349-358.
Bolen, E. G., & M. K. Rylander. 1983. Whistling ducks: zoogeography, ecology,
anatomy. Special Publ., The Museum, Texas Tech. University, No. 20, Lubbock.
Bortner, J. B. 1985. Bioenergetics of wintering Tundra Swans in the Mattamuskeet
region of North Carolina. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, College Park, University
of Maryland.
Boudewijn, T. 1984. The role of digestibility in the selection of spring feeding
sites by Brent Geese. Wildfowl 35: 97-105.
Braithwaite, L. W. & H. J. Frith. 1969. Waterfowl in an inland swamp in New South
Wales, III. Breeding. CSIRO Wildl. Res. 14: 65-109.
Brakhage, G. K. 1965. Biology and behavior of tubnesting Canada Geese. J. Wildl.
Manage. 29: 751-777.
Bromley, R. G. H. 1984. The energetics of migration and reproduction of Dusky
Canada Geese Branta canadensis occidentalis. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,
Eugene, Oregon State University.
Brown, P. W. & L. H. Fredrickson. 1986. Food habits of breeding White-winged
Scoters. Canadian J. Zool. 64: 1652-1654.
Brown, P. W. & L. H. Fredrickson. 1987. Time budget and incubation behavior of
breeding White-winged Scorers. Wilson Bull. 99: 50-55.
Buchsbaum, R., & I. Valiela. 1987. Variability in the chemistry of estuarine
plants and its effects on feeding by Canada Geese. Oecologia (Berl.) 73:
146-153.
Buchsbaum, R., J. Wilson, & I. Valiela. 1984. The effect of phenolic compounds
and other plant constituents on feeding by Canada geese in a coastal marsh.
Oecologia (Berl.) 63: 343-349.
Buchsbaum, R., J. Wilson, & I. Valiela. 1986. Digestibility of plant constituents
by Canada Geese and Atlantic Brant. Ecology 67: 386-393.
Budeau, D. 1989. Energy dynamics, foraging ecology, and behavior of prenesting
Greater White-fronted Geese on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Unpublished
M.S. Thesis, Moscow, University of Idaho.
Burton, B. A., R. J. Hudson, & D. D. Bragg. 1979. Efficiency of utilization of
bulrush rhizomes by Lesser Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 728-735.
Calverley, B. K., & D. A. Boag. 1977. Reproductive potential in parkland and
arctic-nesting populations of Mallards and Pintails Anatidae. Can. J. Zool.
55: 1242-1251.
Campbell, R. R., & J. F. Leatherland. 1983. Changes in calcium reserves in
breeding Lesser Snow Geese Chen caerulescens caerulescens. Acta Zool.
(Stockh.) 64: 9-14.
Cargill, S. M., & R. L. Jefferies. 1984. The effects of grazing by Lesser Snow
Geese on the vegetation of a sub-arctic salt marsh. J. Appl. Ecol. 21: 669-686.
Charman, K. 1979. The seasonal pattern of food utilization by Branta bernicla on
the coast of southeast England. Pp. 64-76 in Proc. First Tech. Meeting on
Western Palearctic Migratory Bird Management (M. Smart, Ed.). Int.
Waterfowl Res. Bur., Slimbridge, England.
Clark, R. G., H. Greenwood, & L. G. Sugden. 1986. Influence of grain characteristics
on optimal diet of field-feeding Mallards, Anas platyrhynchos. J. Appl.
Ecol. 23: 763-771.
Cooch, E. G., D. B. Lank, R. F. Rockwell, & F. Cooke. 1989. Longterm decline in
fecundity in a Snow Goose population: evidence for density dependence? J. Anim.
Ecol. 58: 711-726.
Cooch, E. G., D. B. Lank, R. F. Rockwell, & F. Cooke. 1991. Longterm decline in
body size in a Snow Goose population: evidence of environmental degradation? J.
Anim. Ecol. 60: 483-496.
Cooper, J. A. 1978. The history and breeding biology of the Canada Geese of
Marshy Point, Manitoba. Wildl. Monogr. No. 61.
Cottam, C. 1939. Food habits of North American diving ducks. U.S. Dept. Agric.
Tech. Bull. No. 643.
Cottam, C., J. J. Lynch, & A. L. Nelson. 1944. Food habits and management of
American Sea Brant. J. Wildl. Manage. 8: 36-56.
Cowardin, L. M., D. S. Gilmer, & C. W. Shaiffer. 1985. Mallard recruitment in
the agricultural environment of North Dakota. Wildl. Monogr. No. 92.
Crome, F. H. J. 1985. An experimental investigation of filter-feeding on zoo-
plankton by some specialized waterfowl. Australian J. Zool. 33: 849-862.
Davies, J. C., & F. Cooke. 1983. Annual nesting productivity in Snow Geese:
prairie droughts and arctic springs. J. Wildl. Manage. 47: 291-296.
Dawson, T. J., A. B. Johns, & A. M. Beal. 1989. Digestion in the Australian wood
duck (Chenonetta jubata): a small avian herbivore showing selective digestion
of the hernicellulose component of fiber. Physiol. Zool. 62: 522-540.
Derksen, D. V., & W. D. Eldridge. 1980. Drought-displacement of Pintails to the
arctic coastal plain, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 224-229.
Derrickson, S. R. 1977. Aspects of breeding behavior in the Pintail Anas acuta.
Ph.D. Thesis, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota.
Diamond, J. 1986. Overview: laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural
experiments. Pp. 322 in Community Ecology (J. Diamond & T. J. Case, Eds.).
Harper and Row, New York.
Dirschl, H. J. 1969. Foods of Lesser Scaup and Blue-winged Teal in the Saskatchewan
River Delta. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 77-87.
Dobush, G. R. 1986. The accumulation of nutrient reserves and their contribution
to reproductive success in the White-winged Scoter. Unpublished M.S. Thesis,
University of Guelph.
Draulans, D. 1982. Foraging and size selection of mussels by the Tufted Duck,
Aythya fuligula. J. Anim. Ecol. 51: 943-956.
Drobney, R. D. 1980. Reproductive bioenergetics of Wood Ducks. Auk 97: 480-490.
Drobney, R. D. 1982. Body weight and composition changes and adaptations for
breeding in Wood Ducks. Condor 84: 300-305.
Drobney, R. D., & L. H. Fredrickson. 1979. Food selection by Wood Ducks in
relation to breeding status. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 109-120.
Drobney, R. D., & L. H. Fredrickson. 1985. Protein acquisition: a possible
proximate factor limiting clutch size in Wood Ducks. Wildfowl 36: 122-128.
Dubovsky, J. A. 1990. Reproductive consequences of reduced winterfood quality
and availability in captive, wild-strain and game-farm Mallards (Anas
platyrhynchos). Ph.D. Thesis, Mississippi State, Mississippi State University.
Dubowy, P. J. 1988. Waterfowl communities and seasonal environments: temporal
variability in interspecific competition,Ecology 69: 1439-1453.
Duncan, D. C. 1987. Nesting of Northern Pintails in Alberta: laying date, clutch
size, and renesting. Can. J. Zool. 65: 234-246.
Dwyer, T. J. 1975. Time budget of breeding Gadwalls. Wilson Bull. 87: 335-343.
Dwyer, T. J., G. L. Krapu, & D. M. Janke. 1979. Use of prairie pothole habitat
by breeding Mallards. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 526-531.
Eadie, J. M., & A. Keast. 1982. Do Goldeneye and Perch compete for food? Oecologia
(Berl.) 55: 225-230.
Ebbinge, B., K. Canters, & R. Drent. 1975. Foraging routines and estimated daily
food intake in Barnacle Geese wintering in the northern Netherlands. Wild-
fowl 26: 5-19.
Eisenhauer, D. I., & C. M. Kirkpatrick. 1977. Ecology of the Emperor Goose in
Alaska. Wildl. Monogr. No. 57.
Eldridge, J. L., & G. L. Krapu. 1988. The influence of diet quality on clutch
size and laying pattern in Mallards. Auk 105: 102-110.
Ely, C. R. 1979. Breeding biology of the White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons
frontalis on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Unpublished M.S. Thesis,
Davis, University of California.
Ely, C. R., & D. G. Raveling. 1989. Body composition and weight dynamics of
wintering Greater White-fronted Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 80-87.
Eriksson, M. 0. G. 1979. Competition between freshwater fish and Goldeneyes,
Bucephala clangula L. for common prey. Oecologia (Berl.) 41: 99-107.
Eriksson, M. 0. G. 1983. The role of fish in the selection of lakes by non-
piscivorous ducks: Mallard, Teal, and Goldeneye. Wildfowl 34: 27-32.
Farner, D. S. 1961. Comparative physiology: photoperiodicity. Ann. Rev. Physiol.
23: 71-96.
Farrier, D. S. 1964. The photoperiodic control of reproductive cycles in birds.
Amer. Sci. 52: 137-156.
Foster, J. A. 1976. Nutritional requirements of captive breeding Mallards.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Guelph.
Fox, A. D., & J. Madsen. 1981. The pre-nesting behaviour of the Greenland White-
fronted Goose. Wildfowl 32: 48-54.
Fox, A. D., H. Gitay, H. Boyd, & C. Tomlinson. 1991. Snow-patch foraging by Pink-
footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus in south Iceland. Holarct. Ecol. 14: 81-84.
Fox, A. D., H. Boyd, & S. M. Warren. 1992. Spatial and temporal feeding segregation
of two Icelandic goose species during the spring pre-nesting period. Holarct.
Ecol. 15: in press.
Fredga, S., & H. Dow. 1983. Annual variation in the reproductive performance of
Goldeneyes. Wildfowl 34: 120-126.
Frith, H. J. 1959. The ecology of wild ducks in inland New South Wales. IV.
Breeding. CSIRO Wildl. Res. 4: 156-181.
Frith, H. J. 1967. Waterfowl in Australia. East-West Center Press, Honolulu,
Hawaii.
Fruzinski, B. 1977. Feeding habits of Pink-footed Geese, Anser fabalis
brachyrhynchus in Denmark during the spring passage in April 1975. Dan.
Rev. Game Biol. 10(6): 1-11.
Gardarsson, A. 1976. Stofnstaerd og framleiosla heioagaesar Anser brachyrhynchus
i pjorsarverum 1971-1974. Natturufraedistofnun Islands, Reykjavik.
Gauthier, G., J. Bédard, J. Hunt, & Y. Bédard. 1984a. Spring
accumulation of fat by Greater Snow Geese in two staging habitats. Condor 86: 192-
199.
Gauthier, G., J. Bédard, J. Huot, & Y. Bédard, 1984b. Protein reserves
during staging in Greater Snow Geese. Condor 86: 210-212.
Gauthier, G., Y. Bédard, & J. Bédard, 1988. Habitat use and activity
budgets of Greater Snow Geese in spring. J. Wildl. Manage. 52: 191- 201.
Gauthier, G., & J. Bédard. 1990. The role of phenolic compounds and nutrients
in determining food preference in Greater Snow Geese. Oecologia (Berl.) 84:
553-558.
Gauthier, G., & J. Tardif. 1991. Female feeding and male vigilance during nesting
in Greater Snow Geese. Condor 93: 701-711.
Geis, M. B. 1956. Productivity of Canada geese in the Flathead Valley, Montana.
J. Wildl. Manage. 20: 409-419.
Gilmer, D. S. 1971. Home range and habitat use of breeding Mallards, Anas
platyrhynchos and Wood Ducks, Aix sponsa in north-central Minnesota as
determined by radio tracking. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, St. Paul, University
of Minnesota.
Giroux, J. F., & J. Bédard. 1987a. The effects of grazing by Greater Snow Geese
on the vegetation of tidal marshes in the St. Lawrence estuary. J. Appl.
Ecol. 24: 773-788.
Giroux, J. F., & J. Bédard. 1987b. Effects of simulated feeding by Greater Snow
Geese on Scirpus americanus rhizomes. Oecologia (Berl.) 74: 137-143.
Giroux, J. F., & J. Bédard. 1988. Use of bulrush marshes by Greater Snow Geese
during staging. J. Wildl. Manage. 52: 415-420.
Goldstein, J. H. 1988. The impact of federal programs and subsidies on wetlands.
Trans. N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf. 53: 436-443.
Gray, B. J. 1980. Reproduction, energetics, and social structure of the Ruddy
Duck. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Davis, University of California.
Grue, C. E., L. R. Deweese, P. Mineau, G. A. Swanson, J. R. Foster, P. M. Arnold,
J. N. Huckins, P. J. Sheehan, W. K. Marshall, & A. P. Ludden. 1986. Potential
impacts of agricultural chemicals on waterfowl and other wildlife inhabiting
prairie wetlands: an evaluation of research needs and approaches. Trans. N.
Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 51: 357-383.
Gruenhagen, N. M., & L. H. Fredrickson. 1990. Food use by migratory female Mallards
in northwest Missouri. J. Wildl. Manage. 54: 622-626.
Hammond, M. C., & D. H. Johnson. 1984. Effect of weather on breeding ducks in
North Dakota. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Fish & Wildl. Tech. Rep. No. 1.
Hanson, H. C. 1962. The dynamics of condition factors in Canada Geese and their
relation to seasonal stresses. Arctic Inst. N. Am. Tech. Paper No. 12.
Hanson, H. C. 1965. The Giant Canada Goose. Southern Illinois University Press,
Carbondale.
Harvey, J. M. 1971. Factors affecting Blue Goose nesting success. Can. J. Zool.
49: 223-234.
Harwood, J. 1975. The feedings strategies of Blue Geese, Anser caerulescens.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, London, University of Western Ontario.
Harwood, J. 1977. Summer feeding ecology of Lesser Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage.
41: 48-55.
Heitmeyer, M. E. 1985. Wintering strategies of female Mallards related to dynamics
of lowland hardwood wetlands in the Upper Mississippi Delta. Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, Columbia, University of Missouri.
Heitmeyer, M. E. 1988. Body composition of female Mallards in winter in relation
to annual cycle events. Condor 90: 669-680.
Hepp, G. R., D. J. Stangohr, L. A. Baker, & R. A. Kennamer. 1987. Factors affecting
variation in the egg and duckling components of Wood Ducks. Auk 104: 435-443.
Hik, D. S., & R. L. Jefferies. 1990. Increases in the net above-ground primary
production of a salt-marsh forage grass: a test of the predictions of the
herbivore-optimization model. J. Ecol. 78: 180-195.
Hill, D., R. Wright, & M. Street. 1987. Survival of Mallard ducklings Anas
platyrhynchos and competition with fish for invertebrates on a flooded
gravel quarry in England. Ibis 129: 159-167.
Hill, W. L. 1988. The effect of food abundance on the reproductive patterns of
coots. Condor 90: 324-331.
Hohman, W. L. 1985. Feeding ecology of Ring-necked Ducks in northwestern Minnesota.
J. Wildl. Manage. 49: 546-557.
Hohman, W. L. 1986. Changes in body weight and body composition of breeding
Ring-necked Ducks, Aythya collaris. Auk 103: 181-188.
Holm, E. R., & M. L. Scott. 1954. Studies on the nutrition of wild waterfowl.
N. Y. Fish & Game J. 1: 171-187.
Holmberg, K. 1991. Mallard Ducks: mate choice and breeding success. Unpublished
Ph.D. Dissertation, Stockholm, Stockholm University.
Hunter, M. L., Jr., J. W. Witham, & H. Dow. 1984. Effects of a carbaryl-induced
depression in invertebrate abundance on the growth and behavior of American
Black Duck and Mallard ducklings. Can. J. Zool. 62: 452-456.
Hunter, M. L., Jr., J. J. Jones, K. E. Gibbs, & J. R. Moring. 1986. Duckling
responses to lake acidification: do black ducks and fish compete? Oikos 47:
26-32.
Immelmann, K. 1971. Ecological aspects of periodic reproduction. Pp. 342-389 in
Avian Biology (D. S. Farner & J. R. King, Eds.), vol. 1. Academic Press,
New York and London.
Inglis, I. R. 1977. The breeding behaviour of the Pink-footed Goose: behavioural
correlates of nesting success. Anim. Behav. 25: 747-764.
James, F., C., & C. E. McCulloch. 1985. Data analysis and the design of experiments
in ornithology. Pp. 1-63 in Current Ornithology (R. F., Johnston, Ed.),
vol. 2. Plenum Press, New York.
Jarvis, R. L., & J. H. Noyes. 1986. Foods of Canvasbacks and Redheads in Nevada:
paired males and ducklings. J. Wildl. Manage. 50: 199-203.
Jefferies, R. L., A. Jensen, & K. F., Abraham. 1979. Vegetational development
and the effect of geese on vegetation at La Perouse Bay, Manitoba. Can. J.
Bot. 57: 1439-1450.
Jorde, D. G. 1981. Winter and spring staging ecology of Mallards in south central
Nebraska. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Grand Forks, University of North Dakota.
Joyner, D. E., B. N. Jacobson, & R. D. Arthur. 1987. Nutritional characteristics
of grains fed to Canada Geese. Wildfowl 38: 89-93.
Kahl, M. P. 1964. Food ecology of the Wood Stork, Mycteria americana in Florida.
Ecol. Monogr: 34: 97-117.
Kantrud, H. A. 1986. Effects of vegetation manipulation on breeding waterfowl
in prairie wetlands--a literature review. US. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Fish Wildl.
Tech. Rep., No. 3.
Kerbes, R. H., P. M. Kotanen, & R. L. Jefferies. 1990. Destruction of wetland
habitats by Lesser Snow Geese: a keystone species on the west coast of
Hudson Bay. J. Appl. Ecol. 27: 242-258.
Kingsford, R. T. 1989. Food of the Maned Duck Chenonetta jubata during the breeding
season. Emu 89: 119-124.
Kooloos, J. G. M. 1986. A conveyor-belt model for pecking in the Mallard, Anas
platyrhynchos L. Neth. J. Zool. 36: 47-87.
Korschgen, C. E. 1977. Breeding stress of female eiders in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage.
41: 360-373.
Krapu, G. L. 1974a. Feeding ecology of Pintail hens during reproduction. Auk 91:
278-290.
Krapu, G. L. 1974b. Foods of breeding Pintails in North Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage.
38: 408-417.
Krapu, G. L. 1979. Nutrition of female dabbling ducks during reproduction. Pp.
59-70 in Waterfowl and Wetlands-An Integrated Review (T. A. Bookhout, Ed.).
Proc. Symp. North Central Section, The Wildl. Soc., Madison, Wis.
Krapu, G. L. 1981. The role of nutrient reserves in Mallard reproduction. Auk
98: 29-38.
Krapu, G. L., & H. A. Doty. 1979. Age-related aspects of Mallard reproduction.
Wildfowl 30: 35-38.
Krapu, G. L., A. T. Klett, & D. G. Jorde. 1983. The effect of variable spring
water conditions on Mallard reproduction. Auk 100: 689-698.
Krapu, G. L., & G. A. Swanson. 1977. Foods of juvenile, brood hen, and post-
breeding pintails in North Dakota. Condor 79: 504-507.
Krapu, G. L., & G. A. Swanson. 1975. Some nutritional aspects of reproduction
in prairie nesting Pintails. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 156-162.
LaGrange, T. G., & J. J. Dinsmore. 1989. Habitat use by Mallards during spring
migration through central Iowa. J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 1076-1081.
Lampio, T. 1984. On the spring migration of the Bean Goose, Anser fabalis, in
Finland. Swedish Wildl. Res. 13: 59-72.
Langford, W. A., & E. A. Driver. 1979. Quantification of the relationship between
Mallard nest initiation and temperature. Wildfowl 30: 31-34.
Lieff, B. C., C. D. MacInnes, & R. K. Misra. 1970. Food selection experiments
with young geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 321-327.
McAtee, W. L. 1918. Food habits of the Mallard Ducks of the United States. US.
Dept. Agric. Biol. Surv. Bull, No. 720.
MacInnes, C. D., & E. H. Dunn. 1988. Components of clutch size variation in
arctic-nesting Canada Geese. Condor 90: 83-89.
McLandress, M. R., & D. G. Raveling. 1981a. Changes in diet and body composition
of Canada Geese before spring migration. Auk 98: 65-79.
McLandress, M. R., & D. G. Raveling. 1981b. Hyperphagia and social behavior of
Canada Geese prior to spring migration. Wilson Bull. 93: 310-324.
Madsen, J. 1985a. Relations between change in spring habitat selection and daily
energetics of Pink-footed Geese, Anser brachyrhynchus. Ornis Scand. 16: 222-
228.
Madsen, J. 1985b. Habitat selection of farmland feeding geese in West Jutland,
Denmark: an example of a niche shift. Ornis Scand. 16: 140-144.
Madsen, J. 1987. Status and management of goose populations in Europe, with
special reference to populations resting and breeding in Denmark. Danish
Rev. of Game Biol. 12(4): 1-76.
Madsen, J. 199 1. Status and trends of goose populations in the Western Pale-
arctic in the 1980s. Ardea 79: 113-122.
Martin, A. C., & F. M. Uhler. 1939. Food of game ducks in the United States and
Canada. U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. No. 634.
Mattocks, J. G. 1971. Goose feeding and cellulose digestion. Wildfowl 22: 107-113.
Mickelson, P. G. 1975. Breeding biology of Cackling Geese and associated species
on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Wildl. Monogr. No. 45.
Miller, M. R. 1986. Northern Pintail body condition during wet and dry winters
in the Sacramento Valley, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 50: 189-198.
Miller, M. R. 1987. Fall and winter foods of Northern Pintails in the Sacramento
Valley, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 51: 405-414.
Milne, H. 1976. Body weights and carcass composition of the Common Eider. Wild-
fowl 27: 115-122.
Murphy, M. E., & J. R. King. 1987. Dietary discrimination by molting White-crowned
Sparrows given diets differing only in sulfur amino acid concentration.
Physiol. Zool. 60: 279-289.
Murphy, A. 1988. The impact of diet during the nesting cycle on the productivity
of Canada Geese. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Edmonton, University of Alberta.
National Research Council. 1977. Nutrient requirements of poultry. Publ. No.
2725. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C.
Nelson, H. K. 1978. Effects of the severe winter of 1976-1977 on waterfowl. Proc.
Int. Waterfowl Symp. 3: 39-44.
Newton, I., C. R. G. Campbell, & A. Allison. 1974. Gut analyses of Greylag and
Pink-footed Geese. Bird Study 21: 255-262.
Newton, I., & R. H. Kerbes. 1974. Breeding of Greylag Geese Anser anser on the
Outer Hebrides, Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 43: 771-783.
Noyes, J. H., & R. L. Jarvis. 1985. Diet and nutrition of breeding female Redhead
and Canvasback Ducks in Nevada. J. Wildl. Manage 49: 203-211.
Nudds, T. D., & J. N. Bowlby. 1984. Predator-prey size relationships in North
American dabbling ducks. Can. J. Zool. 62: 2002-2008.
Ohlendorf, H. M., R. L. Hothem, C. M. Bunck, T. Aldrich, & J. F. Moore. 1986.
Relationships between selenium concentrations and avian reproduction. Trans.
N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf. 5 1: 330-342.
Owen, M. 1980. Wild Geese of the World: their life history and ecology. B. T.
Batsford, London.
Owen, M. 1975a. An assessment of fecal analysis technique in waterfowl feeding
studies. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 271-279.
Owen, M. 1975b. Cutting and fertilizing grassland for winter goose management.
J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 163-167.
Owen, M. 1976. The selection of winter food by Whitefronted Geese. J. Appl. Ecol.
13: 715-729.
Owen, M., & J. M. Black. 1990. Waterfowl ecology. Chapman and Hall, New York, N.Y.
Owen, M., & R. Wells. 1979. Territorial behaviour in breeding geese--a re-
examination of Ryder's hypothesis. Wildfowl 30: 20-26.
Owen, M., & J. Kear. 1972. Food and feeding habits. Pp. 58-77 in The Swans (P.
Scott, Ed.). Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Owen, R. B., Jr., & K. J. Reinecke. 1979. Bioenergetics of breeding dabbling
ducks. Pp. 71-93 in Waterfowl and Wetlands--An Integrated Review (T. A.
Bookhout, Ed.). Proc. Symp. North Central Section, The Wildl. Soc., Madison,
Wis.
Palmer, R. S. 1976. Handbook of North American birds, vols. 2 & 3. New Haven,
Yale University Press.
Parker, H., & H. Holm. 1990. Patterns of nutrient and energy expenditure in
female Common Eiders nesting in the high arctic. Auk 107: 660-668.
Parra, R. 1978. Comparison of foregut and hindgut fermentation in herbivores.
Pp. 205-229 in The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores (G. C. Montgomery, Ed.).
Smithsonian Instit. Press, Washington, D.C.
Parrish, J. W. Jr., & E. W. Martin. 1977. The effect of dietary lysine level on
the energy and nitrogen balance of the dark-eyed junco. Condor 79: 24-30.
Patterson, I. J. 1991. Conflict between geese and agriculture; does goose grazing
cause damage to crops? Ardea 79: 179-186.
Paulus, S. L. 1983. Dominance relations, resource use, and pairing chronology
of Gadwalls in winter. Auk 100: 947-952.
Paulus, S. L. 1984. Behavioral ecology of Mottled Ducks in Louisiana. Unpublished
Ph.D. Thesis, Auburn, Auburn University.
Pehrsson, O. 1982. An experimental study of egg and duckling size, and subsequent
survival and growth rate as a result of food quality of laying Mallards. Pp.
195-202 in XIVth Int. Congr. of Game Biol. (F. O'Gorman & J. Rochford, Eds.).
Irish Wildl. Publ., Dublin.
Pehrsson, O. 1984. Relationships of food to spatial and temporal breeding strategies
of Mallards in Sweden. J. Wildl. Manage. 48. 322-339.
Pehrsson, O. 1991. Egg and clutch size in the Mallard as related to food quality.
Can. J. Zool. 69: 156-162.
Penkala, J. M. 1975. Winter food habits and body weights of Atlantic Brant. Proc.
Annu. Conf. Northeast, See. Wildl. Soc. 32: 151-169.
Perret, N. G. 1962. The spring and summer foods of the common Mallard, Anas
platyrhynchos platyrhynchos L., in south central Manitoba. Unpublished M.S.
Thesis, Vancouver, University of British Columbia.
Pitelka, F. A., P. Q. Tomich, & G. W. Treichel. 1955. Ecological relations of
jaegers and owls as lemming predators near Barrow, Alaska. Ecol. Monogr.
25: 85-117.
Pöysä H. 1985. Circumstantial evidence of foraging interference between two
species of dabbling ducks. Wilson Bull. 97: 541-543.
Pöysä, H. 1986. Foraging niche shifts in multispecies dabbling duck (Anas spp.)
feeding groups: harmful and beneficial interactions between species. Ornis
Scand. 17: 333-346.
Pöysä, H. 1987. Ecology of foraging behaviour in dabbling ducks. (Anas spp.)
Publ. Sci. No. 10. University of Joensuu, Joensuu, Finland.
Prevett, J. P., I. F. Marshall, & V. G. Thomas. 1985. Spring foods of Snow and
Canada Geese at James Bay. J. Wildl. Manage. 49: 558-563.
Prins, H. H. TH., R. C. Ydenberg, & R. H. Drent. 1980. The interaction of Brent
Geese, Branta bernicla, and Sea Plantain, Plantago maritima, during spring
staging: field observations and experiments. Acta Bot. Neerl. 29: 585-596.
Prins, H. H. TH., & R. C. Ydenberg. 1985. Vegetation growth and a seasonal habitat
shift of the Barnacle Goose, Branta leucopsis. Oecologia (Berl.) 66:
122-125.
Prokosch, P. 1979. Plans for the diking-in of feeding habitat of Branta bernicla
bernicla in Schleswig-Holstein, Federal Republic of Germany. Pp. 106-120 in
Proc. First Tech. Meeting on Western Palearctic Migratory Bird Management
(M. Smart, Ed.). Int. Waterfowl Res. Bur., Slimbridge, England.
Prop, J. 1991. Food exploitation patterns by Brent Geese Branta bernicla during
spring staging. Ardea 79: 331-342.
Prop, J., M. R. Van Eerden, & R. H. Drent. 1984. Reproductive success of the
Barnacle Goose, Branta leucopsis, in relation to food exploitation on the
breeding grounds, western Spitsbergen. Pp. 87-117 in Current Research on
Arctic Geese F. Mehlum and M. A. Ogilvie, Eds.). Norsk Polarinstitutt
Skrifter Nr. 181.
Raveling, D. G. 1984. Geese and hunters of Alaska's Yukon Delta: management
problems and political dilemmas. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf.
49: 555-575.
Raveling, D. G. 1979a. The annual energy cycle of the Cackling Canada Goose. Pp.
81-93 in Management and Biology of Pacific Flyway Geese (R. L. Jarvis &
J. C. Bartonek, Eds.), OSU Book Stores, Corvallis, Oregon.
Raveling, D. G. 1979b. The annual cycle of body composition of Canada Geese with
special reference to control of reproduction. Auk 96: 234-252.
Raveling, D. G. 1978. The timing of egg laying by northern geese. Auk 95: 294-303.
Raveling, D. G., & H. G. Lumsden. 1977. Nesting ecology of Canada Geese in the
Hudson Bay lowlands of Ontario: evolution and population regulation. Ontario
Ministry Nat. Resour., Fish & Wildl. Res. Rep. No. 98.
Raveling, D. G., M. Sifri, & R. B. Knudsen. 1978. Seasonal variation of femur
and tibiotarsus constituents in Canada Geese. Condor 80: 246-248.
Reed, A., G. Chapdelaine, & P. Dupuis. 1977. Use of farmland in spring by
migrating Canada Geese in the St. Lawrence Valley, Quebec. J. Appl. Ecol.
14: 667-680.
Reinecke, K. J., & R. B. Owen, Jr. 1980. Food use and nutrition of Black Ducks
nesting in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 549-558.
Reynolds, R. E. 1987. Breeding duck population, production, and habitat surveys,
1979-1985. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf. 52: 186-205.
Rhymer, J. M. 1988. The effect of egg size variability on thermoregulation of
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, offspring and its implications for survival.
Oecologia (Berl.) 75: 20-24.
Robbins, C. T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York.
Rogers, J. P., & L. J. Korschgen. 1966. Foods of Lesser Scaups on breeding,
migration, and wintering areas. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 258-264.
Rohwer, F. C. 1986. Composition of Blue-winged Teal eggs in relation to egg size,
clutch size, and timing of laying. Condor 88: 513-519.
Ruess, R. W., D. S. Hik, & R. L. Jefferies. 1989. The role of Lesser Snow Geese
as nitrogen processors in a sub-arctic salt marsh. Oecologia (Berl.) 79:
23-29.
Ryder, J. P. 1967. The breeding biology of Ross' Goose in the Perry River region,
Northwest Territories. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rep. Ser. No. 3.
Ryder, J. P. 1970. A possible factor in the evolution of clutch size in Ross'
Goose. Wilson Bull. 82: 5-13.
Savard, J. P. L. 1984. Territorial behaviour of Common Goldeneye, Barrow's Golden-
eye and Bufflehead in areas of sympatry. Ornis Scand. 15: 211-216.
Savard, J. P. L. 1988. Winter, spring, and summer territoriality in Barrow's
Goldeneye: characteristics and benefits. Ornis Scand. 19: 119-128.
Savard, J. P. L., & J. M. N. Smith. 1987. Interspecific aggression by Barrow's
Goldeneye: a descriptive and functional analysis. Behaviour 102: 168-184.
Scott, D. K., & M. E. Birkhead. 1983. Resources and reproductive performance in
Mute Swans, Cygnus olor. J. Zool. 200: 539-547.
Scott, M. L., M. C. Nesheim, & R. J. Young. 1969. Nutrition of the Chicken. M.
L. Scott & Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y.
Sedinger, J. S. 1984. Protein and amino acid composition of tundra vegetation
in relation to nutritional requirements of geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:
1128-1136.
Sedinger, J. S. 1986. Biases in comparison of proventricular and esophageal food
samples from Cackling Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 50: 221-222.
Sedinger, J. S., & D. G. Raveling. 1984. Dietary selectivity in relation to avail-
ability and quality of food for goslings of Cackling Geese. Auk 101: 295-306.
Sedinger, J. S., R. G. White, F. E. Mann, F. A. Burris, & R. A. Kedrowski. 1989.
Apparent metabolizability of alfalfa components by yearling Pacific Black
Brant. J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 726-734.
Serie, J. R., & G. A. Swanson. 1976. Feeding ecology of breeding Gadwalls on
saline wetlands. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 69-81.
Seymour, N. R., & R. D. Titman. 1978. Changes in activity patterns, agonistic
behavior and territoriality of Black Ducks, Anas rubripes, during the
breeding season in a Nova Scotia tidal marsh. Can. J. Zool. 56: 1773-1785.
Sheehan, P. J., A. Baril, P. Mineau, D. K. Smith, A. Harfenist, & W., K. Marshall.
1987. The impact of pesticides on the ecology of prairie nesting ducks. Can.
Wildl. Set. Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 19.
Sibbald, I. R. 1986. The T.M.E. system of feed evaluation: methodology, feed
composition data and bibliography. Anim. Res. Cent. Contrib. 85-19, Agric.
Can., Ottawa. 114 pp.
Sibbald, I. R. 1987. Estimation of bioavailable amino acids in feeding-stuffs
for poultry and pigs: a review with emphasis on balance experiments. Can.
J. Anim. Sci. 67: 221-301.
Siegfried, W., R. 1976. Segregation in feeding behaviour of four diving ducks in
southern Manitoba. Can. J. Zool. 54: 730-736.
Simmons, R., P. Barnard, B. MacWhirter, & G. L. Hansen. 1986. The influence of
microtines on polygyny, productivity, age, and provisioning of breeding
Northern Harriers: a five year study. Can. J. Zool. 64: 2447-2456.
Sjoberg, K., & K. Danell. 1982. Feeding activity of ducks in relation to diel
emergence of chironomids. Can. J. Zool. 60: 1383-1387.
Smith, A. G. 1969. Waterfowl-habitat relationships in the Lousana, Alberta, Water-
fowl Study Area. Pp. 116-122 in Saskatoon Wetlands Seminar. Can. Wildl. Serv.
Rep. Set. No. 6.
Smith, A. G. 1971. Ecological factors affecting waterfowl production in the
Alberta Parklands. US. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Resour. Publ. 98.
Smith, R. I. 1970. Response of Pintail breeding populations to drought. J. Wildl.
Manage. 34: 943-946.
Stephens, D. W., & J. R. Krebs. 1986. Foraging theory. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, New Jersey.
Sterling, K. 1974. Last of the naturalists: the career of C. Hart Merriam. Arno
Press, New York, N.Y.
Stewart, G. R., & R. D. Titman. 1980. Territorial behaviour of prairie pothole
Blue-winged Teal. Can. J. Zool. 58: 639-649.
Stewart, R. E., & H. A. Kantrud. 1973. Ecological distribution of breeding water-
fowl populations in North Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. 37: 39-50.
St. Joseph, A. K. M. 1979. The development of inland feeding by Branta bernicla
bernicla in southeastern England. Pp. 132-145 in Proc. First Tech. Meeting
on Western Palearctic Migratory Bird Management (M. Smart, Ed.). Int. Water-
fowl Res. Bur., Slimbridge, England.
Strong, A. M. 1986. Foraging decisions of captive Mallards. Unpublished M.S.
Thesis, Columbia, University of Missouri.
Sturkie, P. D., Ed. 1988. Avian physiology. 4th edition. SpringerVerlag, New
York, N.Y.
Sugden, L. G. 1973. Feeding ecology of Pintail, Gadwall, American Widgeon and
Lesser Scaup ducklings in southern Alberta. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rep. Set.
No. 24.
Swanson, G. A. 1977. Diel food selection by Anatinae on a waste-stabilization
system. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 226-231.
Swanson, G. A., & J. C. Bartonek. 1970. Bias associated with food analysis in
gizzards of Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 739-746.
Swanson, G. A., & A. B. Sargeant. 1972. Observations of nighttime feeding behavior
of ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 959-961.
Swanson, G. A., G. L. Krapu, J. C. Bartonek, J. R. Serie, & D. H. Johnson. 1974.
Advantages in mathematically weighting waterfowl food habits data. J. Wildl.
Manage. 38: 302-307.
Swanson, G. A., G. L. Krapu, & J. R. Serie. 1979. Foods of laying female dabbling
ducks on the breeding grounds. Pp. 47-57 in Waterfowl and Wetlands-An
Integrated Review. (T. A. Bookhout, Ed.). Proc. Symp. North Central Section.
The Wildl. Soc., Madison, Wis.
Swanson, G. A., & M. I. Meyer. 1977. Impact of fluctuating water levels on feeding
ecology of breeding Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 426-433.
Swanson, G. A., M. I. Meyer, & V. A. Adomaitis. 1985. Foods consumed by breeding
Mallards on wetlands of south-central North Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:
197-203.
Swanson, G. A., M. I. Meyer, & J. R. Serie. 1974. Feeding ecology of breeding
Blue-winged Teals. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 396-407.
Swanson, G. A., T. L. Shaffer, J. F. Wolf, & F. B. Lee. 1986. Renesting
characteristics of captive Mallards on experimental ponds. J. Wildl. Manage.
50: 32-38.
Tate, J., Jr., & D. J. Tate. 1966. Additional records of Whistling Swans feeding
in dry fields. Condor 68: 398-399.
Taylor, E. J. 1986. Foods and foraging ecology of Oldsquaws, Clangula hyemalis
L., on the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Fairbanks,
University of Alaska.
Teunissen, W., B. Spaans, & R. Drent. 1985. Breeding success in Brent in relation
to individual feeding opportunities during spring staging in the Wadden Sea.
Ardea 73: 109-119.
Thomas, D. L., & E. J. Taylor. 1990. Study design and tests for comparing resource
use and availability. J. Wildl. Manage. 54: 322-330.
Thomas, V. G., & J. P. Prevett. 1980. The nutritional value of arrow-grasses to
geese at James Bay. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 830-836.
Thomas, V. G., & J. P. Prevett. 1982a. The roles of the James and Hudson Bay low-
land in the annual cycle of geese. Naturaliste Can. 109: 913-925.
Thomas, V. G., & J. P. Prevett. 1982b. The role of horsetails, Equisetaceae, in
the nutrition of northern-breeding geese. Oecologia (Berl.) 53: 359-363.
Thompson, S. C., & D. G. Raveling. 1987. Incubation behavior of Emperor Geese
compared with other geese: interactions of predation, body size, and
energetics. Auk 104: 707-716.
Tiner, R. W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: current status and recent
trends. U.S. Gov. Printing Off., Washington, D.C.
Tome, M. W., 1981. Reproductive bioenergetics of female Ruddy Ducks in Manitoba.
Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Orono, University of Maine.
Tome, M. W. 1984. Changes in nutrient reserves and organ size of female Ruddy
Ducks breeding in Manitoba. Auk 101: 830-837.
Tome, M. W., 1988. Optimal foraging: food patch depletion by Ruddy Ducks.
Oecologia (Berl.) 76: 27-36.
Tome, M. W., 1989a. Search-path characteristics of foraging Ruddy Ducks. Auk 106:
42-48.
Tome, M. W., 1989b. Food patch depletion by Ruddy Ducks: foraging by expectation
rules. Can. J. Zool. 67: 2751-2755.
Turner, B. C., G. S. Hochbaum, F. D. Caswell, & D. J. Nieman. 1987. Agricultural
impacts on wetland habitats on the Canadian prairies, 1981-85. Trans. N.
Amer. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf. 52: 206-215
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 1981. The Platte River ecology study. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv. Spec. Res. Rep., NPWRC, Jamestown, N.D.
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service & Canadian Wildlife Service. 1986. North American
Waterfowl Management Plan: a strategy for cooperation. Washington, D.C./
Ottawa.
Uspenski, S. M. 1972. Die Eiderenten die neue Brehm-Bucherei No. 452, A. Ziemsen
Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt.
Vangilder, L. D., L. M. Smith, & R. K. Lawrence. 1986. Nutrient reserves of pre-
migratory Brant during spring. Auk 103: 237-241.
White, H. C. 1957. Food and natural history of mergansers on salmon waters in
the maritime provinces of Canada. Bull. Fish Res. Board Can. No. 116.
Wishart, R. A. 1983. The behavioral ecology of the American Wigeon, Anas americana,
over its annual cycle. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Winnipeg, University of
Manitoba.
Wood, C. C. 1985. Food-searching behaviour of the Common Merganser, Mergus
merganser, II: choice of foraging location. Can. J. Zool. 63: 1271-1279.
Wood, C. C. 1986. Dispersion of Common Merganser, Mergus merganser,
breeding pairs in relation to the availability of juvenile Pacific salmon in
Vancouver Island streams. Can. J. Zool. 64: 756-765.
Wood, C. C., & C. M. Hand. 1985. Food-searching behaviour of the Common Merganser,
Mergus merganser, I: functional responses to prey and predator density. Can.
J. Zool. 63: 1260-1270.
Woodin, M. C. 1987. Wetland selection and foraging ecology of breeding diving
ducks. Ph.D. thesis, St. Paul, University of Minnesota.
Woodin, M. C., & G. A. Swanson. 1989. Foods and dietary strategies of prairie-
nesting Ruddy Ducks and Redheads. Condor 91: 280-287.
Wypkema, R. C. P., & C. D. Ankney. 1979. Nutrient reserve dynamics of Lesser
Snow Geese staging at James Bay, Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 57: 213-219.
Ydenberg, R. C., & H. H. TH. Prins. 1981. Spring grazing and the manipulation
of food quality by Barnacle Geese. J. Appl. Ecol. 18: 443-453.
Zweers, G. A., A. F. C. Gerritsen, & P. J. Van Kranenburg-Voogd. 1977. Mechanics
of Feeding of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L.; Aves Anseriformes. The
Lingual Apparatus and the Suction-Pressure Pump Mechanism of Straining.
Karger, Basel, Switzerland.
U.S. Department of the Interior |
U.S. Geological Survey
URL: http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/ecomanag/foraging/refer.htm
Page Contact Information: Webmaster
Page Last Modified: Friday, 01-Feb-2013 19:18:27 EST
Menlo Park, CA [caww54]